Being Nameless with the Dao

When the Ancient Greek thinkers were experiencing a paradigm shift in the understanding of the world from the 6th century BC onwards, another intellectual force was rising at the same time in the East. The dawn of Chinese Philosophy appeared in the Spring and Autumn Period, and continued with an intense and diverse development throughout the Warring States Period. The Pre-Qin Philosophy (先秦哲學), which encompassed a number of competing schools of philosophy, laid the intellectual foundations of the most important values of Chinese culture, be it in Literature, Theater, Calligraphy and Painting. Having a strong fascination in Chinese Literature and Philosophy, I would like to share about some ideas of a fascinating school of thought of Chinese Philosophy – the Daoist school (道家), as advocated by the philosopher Lao Zi (老子) and his famous successor, Zhuang Zi (莊子).

 

The Daoist philosophy is idiosyncratic when compared to the other schools of Chinese philosophy, not only because of its apparently passive outlook of life, but also because of its more metaphysical worldview. The pre-Qin philosophy was all pragmatic and humanistic – each school wished to advocate for beliefs that would impact the human life and society in general. The Daoist outlook, by contrast, was more inclined towards nature, and that was quite similar to the natural philosophers of the Pre-Socratic period. Indeed, in the later Classical Greek era, natural philosophy has been perceived as a pointless inquiry for human existence and the thinkers placed their focus on more humanistic issues such as ethics, politics and rhetoric. That is why Daoist philosophy was considered unique and has attracted its fair share of detractors, who pointed out that the philosophy itself was not useful for any reforms on social and political issues. As we will see, Daoist philosophy is often capable of surprise and it may turn out to be useful for the human world.

‘Dao’ (道), which is translated as ‘way’ or ‘path’ in English, is the ontological entity of the universe, and it is the central component of the cosmology proposed by the Daoists. Dao leads to the genesis of all things in the world. Reminiscent of the ontological reality proposed by certain Presocratic philosophers, Dao is everlasting and it neither has a beginning or an end. There is no notion of life and death in this reality, so the whole system is harmonized and does not have any dialectical or opposite relations at all.

While I do not think that the nature perceived by the Daoist necessarily means ‘natural science’ in the modern sense of the term, it is quite evident that Dao encompasses everything from nature – including humans. Thus in Daoist doctrines, the meaning of ‘Zi Ran’ (自然, translated as ‘nature’ in English) can be compared to ‘physis’ from Greek philosophy, which excludes anything that originates from humans. The whole enterprise of Daoist philosophy is to inspire the followers to appreciate the genuine nature of things, and to retreat from the human influences – that have led to a lot of unnecessary conflicts and arguments – and live one’s life by getting closer to the way of ‘Dao’.

An important attribute of ‘Dao’, which is relevant as that serves as a contrast to other competing Pre-Qin philosophy, is the namelessness of Dao. ‘Dao’, immanent in the natural world, is abstract and it cannot be represented by language or ‘names’. In a sense, one cannot easily comprehend the nature of Dao and describe it in words how that looks like and what it is about. This is in stark contrast to the other schools of philosophy, as they often attempt to give opinions on human nature and hence how one should behave to fit in. A key example is the Confucian school (儒家).

Confucius (孔子), the founder of the school, maintained that ‘Ren’ (仁, kindness) was important because, when a person has disciplined himself through the observation of this moral requirement, that would facilitate a positive interpersonal relationship with others, leading to a stable social order at large. Confucius observed that language, one of the most important vehicles of human interactions, would impact human relationships and also the social hierarchy. Thus he proposed the need for ‘rectification of names’ (正名, Zheng Ming), the requirement that a person’s behaviour should be in accord to his title, the ‘name’.  By expressing a meaning and correspondence unambiguously, the correct ideas can be conveyed through the verbal or written means and that would lead to less conflicts and a more harmonious social order. The notion was not very different from Greek philosophy, like when Socrates pushed for clear definitions of terms when someone gave an ambiguous statement; or the sophist Prodicus who stressed on precise distinctions between similar terms.

The Confucian moral order is therefore rational and hierarchal, working through a rational stage-by-stage approach. Mencius (孟子), the successor of the school of thought, advocated that one should start a moral outlook from an individual perspective, and then influenced his family and finally the society at large (推己及人).

The Daoist philosophers, however, disagreed with this perspective of looking at life. Lao Zi, the founder of the school, has made the famous statement that:

‘The Dao that can be told of is not the eternal Dao.’ (道可道非常道)

and

‘The Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth.’ (無名萬物之始)

The philosopher has stated the two most unique doctrines regarding Dao: it cannot be spoken of or stated in words. To put it in another word, if that is an alleged ‘Dao’ which can be stated in words – it is not the real thing, it is a hoax. That is why ‘wu ming’ (無名, namelessness) is Dao’s most important attribute, and it is the origin of all things in nature. If the Confucian thinkers attempted to place names on everything they experienced in life, their actions were against nature, as nature has already organized everything in unity, and the Confucians were trying to disrupt the order of nature. Lao Zi has provided a lot of metaphysical background for Daoist philosophy, but that was Zhuang Zi, his successor, who has engaged with the detractors of his era and expressed a more systematic exposition of Daoist ideas in the book that bore his name. 

(End of Part 1) 

by Ed Law 

Conatus Classics

Nights of Cabiria

 

To celebrate the 100th birthday of Italian filmmaker Federico Fellini, a number of Fellini classics will be shown again in cinemas around Hong Kong. ‘Nights of Cabiria’ is an interesting candidate of Fellini’s wonderful oeuvre.

While cinema lovers around the world are familiar with Fellini’s imaginative style, often characterized by its dream-like tendency, it is easy to overlook that Fellini started from an origin of Italian Neorealism. This film style from the 1940s strove for the most hard-core realism known to film – from the ‘un-cinematic’ casual gestures from de Sica films to the uncompromising scenes common in Rossellini’s films, the artistic movement built up on the influence of von Stroheim and Renoir, and aimed for a kind of documentary realism unprecedented for cinema. The young Fellini has worked with Roberto Rossellini, as a writer for the Neorealist film ‘Paisan’. Hence ‘The Night of Cabiria’ is seen by many as an interesting work in Fellini’s cinema, as it combines two apparently irreconcilable style – his later signature style and the realist style where he originated from. Yet the result is not an inconsistent film: the Fellini masterpiece is a sincere outlook of how one may have survived in a harsh and uncompromising environment.

One can easily feel that Fellini has expressed a sense of pessimism in ‘Nights of Cabiria’, yet it is likely a commitment to the style of Italian Neorealism rather than his personal outlook on life. It is as if the filmmaker is placing the protagonist, Cabiria (starring Giulietta Masina) in a social experiment. Cabiria was a sympathetic character for many, she was a happy-go-lucky kind of person and she was willing to fight for a better future, quite like a Sirkian woman. That reminds me of a later film by Godard, ‘Vivre Sa Vie’, and Nana (played by Anna Karina) was actually quite similar to Cabiria, though not as comedic. By placing Cabiria in a genuinely rough and unsympathetic world, one can see that she was as street-smart as she could be, as it was the only way for her to survive ‘on the streets’. Many viewers have expressed that Cabiria resembles a Chaplin character, and indeed her gestures were not very different from the Little Tramp. While the iconic character is very likeable, one should also note the subtlety offered by Chaplin. The comedic character possessed a kind of passive-aggressiveness in all his adventures, and he was willing to play dirty and rough when the situation called for it (albeit in a funny way).  

Cabiria was as intelligent, yet she had to face a lot of misfortunes, some caused by the economical situations reflected in the film, other caused by the various characters in the film. She has been taken advantage of all the time, even when she was making attempts to connect with other people and to cultivate genuine relationships (the fact that Cabiria was working as a prostitute also signified her instrumental value as perceived by others in the film).  Fellini placed the ultimate irony at the point when Cabiria finally felt serene and thought of a more fulfilling life, she was in a state of trance caused by a magician, under the watchful eyes of some curious audience looking for entertainment. She could not find happiness or fulfilment in reality, and even when she could at least imagine that in her mind, she was still being taken advantage of. 

The rather dark tone of the film took an existential turn, when Cabiria discovered that, after the events of the whole film, she was again facing a man who would give a false promise of loving her, only having an intention to take away her money and possessions. The rather absurd scenario alluded to Nietzsche’s idea of eternal recurrence, or maybe the ‘Kenny dies at every episode’ scenario in South Park. Literally, Cabiria’s life was going nowhere, and she was living her life one day at a time. Fellini was wise in the sense that he did not offer the audience a deus ex machina or an optimistic ending here. Whether the ending is good or bad is not the most important issue, what matters is the reflection that can be offered to the audience. Cabiria finally came to the realization of the absurdity of life, and that would simply not be a miracle and then everything become okay. In the memorable final scene, she gave the answer for enduring the impermanence of human existence: a smile through the tears. The journey of life is long, and only by staying in the struggle will one have the last laugh. 

by Ed Law 

Film Analysis

Pozzolana : The Wonder of Roman Concrete

 

Classical antiquity has not only offered us a rich cultural heritage, that has also seen a lot of scientific achievement. When one has an opportunity to admire the architecture that originated from the Roman Empire, one should not overlook the fact that the science of building materials from the ancient times have provided the starting point for further development that is still highly relevant to this day. With previous experience in the research of Construction Materials, I find the science of Roman concrete (Latin: opus caementicium), responsible for the wonder of Roman architecture, really fascinating. For this time, it is all about science.

 

While most of us can easily appreciate the importance of cement and concrete for our daily lives, we may not necessarily know the scientific and historical background of these useful materials. To start with, concrete is a mixture of a few chemical components: a binder material, some form of aggregate, water, and some cases, further chemical additives. The binder is often called a cement, and it is like the ‘backbone’ of the concrete. The aggregate is often some form of sand of various diameters, acting as a filler material. Concrete is prepared by mixing cement, sand, and water in a well-defined proportion, when chemical reactions lead to the setting, and eventually hardening of the resulting concrete. Though it may sound trivial, this has always been the the basis for the building industry throughout human history.

 

Let’s look a bit further about the historical and scientific aspects of cement. While forms of cement have been known since ancient Egypt, Greek, and the Roman empire, the key composition of cement almost always contains some calcium compounds, like lime or calcium carbonate. The cement we know nowadays, the most classic form being the Portland Cement, was a creation from England back in the 19^th century. While there are many variations since the first development of this classic form of cement (Ordinary Portland Cement, abbreviated as OPC), the key chemical components of the cement itself are often very similar, albeit varying in proportions – inorganic compounds of calcium (Ca), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe). The Roman cement, as we will see, also contained many of these chemical components, yet its specific composition led to some interesting properties of its own.

 

Before we move on to the ancient science let me address two further issues regarding some properties of cement. The first issue is the production of cement itself. The ingredients of cement, containing inorganic salts of calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron, is heated at very high temperature (>1500 degree Celsius), and as a result a number of chemical reactions take place during the burning process, forming new chemical products. The resulting mixture is ground into a fine powder and leads to the greenish grey appearance very typical of modern cement. While we do not have to go into the chemical details, often 4 types of complex inorganic salts result: two of them are calcium-silicon salts, designated as C₃S and C₂S; one is a calcium-aluminum salt, C₃A; and a calcium-aluminum-iron salt, C₄AF. The reason why this is mentioned is because the proportion and the specific properties of the 4 salts will determine the resulting properties of the cement, and hence impacts the setting time, mechanical and durability of the concrete itself. As an example, ‘high-alumina cement’ is a version that increases the concentration of aluminum salt in the precursor mixture and leads to a richer aluminum content (more C₃A) in the resulting cement. Indeed, the various types of special cement that have emerged from the past 200 years of so originated from tuning of these properties.

The second issue is the paradoxical observation of water’s action towards concrete. Water is needed in the setting and hardening of the concrete. Yet, the strength of the resulting concrete is developed and enhanced by immersion of the concrete in water, which may sound counter-intuitive to many. That is because the calcium-based cement is a hydraulic-setting cement, meaning that the resulting concrete develops its mechanical strength in water. That would certainly sound strange to many people not in the field of construction engineering.

 

Yet, there is a caveat in the water immersion issue. While calcium-based concrete can develop strength in a water medium, we mean water only. If the aqueous environment contains other inorganic salts, just like in the marine environment, it will lead to a deterioration of the structure in terms of mechanical strength and issues in durability. Thus, underwater construction has always posed a problem for the field of building materials, and throughout history many has worked towards solving the problem. That is where Roman Concrete enters the story.

 

Roman Concrete, which has been used in the construction of many architectures since Ancient Rome, was reputed to be a very durable building material. Also, the ancient building material was in particular famous for application in underwater building work, including bridges and areas near water. The Roman concrete was also based on a calcium hydraulic-setting cement, like the Ordinary Portland Cement. The wonder behind this ancient cement can be summarized by one word: Pozzolana.

 

Pozzolana (Latin: pulvis puteolanus) is the volcanic ash found from Pozzuoli, Italy. While it is known that other civilizations, like Egypt and Greek, has adopted similar approaches in their building work, that was the Romans who have really popularized the idea and committed to large scale construction. Volcanic ash is a product of a relatively explosive volcanic eruption, often due to the rhyolite-natured magma (more felsic / acidic magma due to a higher SiO₂ content), and that contains more gas products and hence a more violent eruption. When the liquid magma is released into the air through a pyroclastic eruption, the resulting tiny fragments of glass formed from that are the volcanic ashes. The pozzolanic volcanic ash is rich in silica and alumina, and by reacting with lime, Ca(OH)₂, further products are obtained, giving rise to its specific properties. The resulting cement has a higher silica content than the standard version of modern cement, and they are not indeed very different certain specific types of cement nowadays, where additives like fly ash and fumed silica are added into the precursor mix.

 

The resulting concrete, prepared from the cement (Lime and Pozzolana), various aggregate and water, has offered a number of advantages. First, the concrete is very durable. That can be attributed to the high silica and alumina content of the cement. Also, it is very resistant to the action of salt water. Thus, in the marine environment, even if the concrete structure was submerged under water, the mechanical strength of the structure was not compromised. This can be explained as high-alumina cement is often resistant to sulfate attack and the action of other inorganic salts. One will always feel with a sense of awe how a volcano-related material can contribute so much to a long-standing construction problem.

 

The ancient cement from the Roman Empire may be from a long, long time ago, yet the concept behind such an achievement is in no way antiquated. The type of ancient cement has inspired a modern type of cement known as 'Pozzolanic Cement', which is still used in a number of regions around the world. The approach is immortalized by a named chemical reaction, and a number of international standards regarding the use of these materials in building industry. You will never view the volcanos in the same way again! 

by Ed Law 

Conatus Classics